外文文獻(xiàn)（市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略）

1、<p>　　Marketing Strategy</p><p>　　1 Market Segmentation and Target Strategy</p><p>　　A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.H

2、owever,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding

3、 which segments will be pursued ads target markets.</p><p>　　Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effective

4、ly by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is co

5、rrectly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency.</p><p>　　The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single se

6、gment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is direct

7、ed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.</p><p>　　2 Positioning the Product</

8、p><p>　　Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management n

9、eeds to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products.</p><p>　　Marketing executives can choose from

10、a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:</p><p>　　2.1 Positioning in Relation to a competitor<

11、/p><p>　　For some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an

12、advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intel Corp.launched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel

13、 Inside" in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and exe</p><p>　　2.2 Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or Attribute </p><p>　　Sometimes a company's

14、 positioning strategy entails associating its product with(or distancing it from)a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such as"Made in the USA."In the wor

15、ds of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge ove

16、r large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which d</p><p>　　2.3 Positioning by Price and Quality</p><p>　　Certain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality product

17、s and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-quality continuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at the other.We're not saying,however

18、,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired—and for the most part succeeded in—repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing de<

19、;/p><p>　　The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrower terms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from

20、 competing products. </p><p>　　A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive c

21、olor or lettering.A brand mark is recognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Lauren's Polo Brand.Green Giant(canned and frozen vegetable produc

22、ts)and Arm&Hammer(baking soda)are both brand names and brand marks.</p><p>　　A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand ma

23、rk,as many people believe,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law Revision A

24、ct,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.</p><p>　　For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store

25、 or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based sole

26、ly on price.The reputation of a brand also influences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities(Sunkist oranges,Morton s</p><p><b&

27、gt;　　3 Pricing</b></p><p>　　Pricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different

28、customers and situations.</p><p>　　Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through its life cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can

29、 decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the maximu

30、m amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low init</p><p>　　Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differe

31、nces in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented prici

32、ng, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,</p><p&g

33、t;　　4 Distribution Channels</p><p>　　Most producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel—a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process

34、 of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.</p><p>　　Why do producers give some of the selling job to intermediaries?After all,doing so means giving u

35、p some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, a

36、nd scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.</p><p>　　A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.It overcomes the major

37、time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:</p><p>　　1.Inform

38、ation.</p><p>　　2.Promotion.</p><p>　　3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.</p><p>　　4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including such act

39、ivities as manufacturing and packaging.</p><p>　　5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the complet

40、ed transferred.</p><p>　　1.Transporting and storing goods.</p><p>　　2.Financing.</p><p>　　3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whethe

41、r these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they ca

42、n be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these funct</p><p>　　Distribu

43、tion channels can be described by the number of channel levels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel leve

44、l. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.</p><p>　　When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish th

45、e better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company

46、 will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size and quality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or select</p><p>　　Understa

47、nding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater eff

48、iciency in marking goods available to target markets. The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribut

49、ion channels can be described by the number of chann</p><p>　　5 Promotion </p><p>　　Promotion is one of the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools——adve

50、rtising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling——work together to achieve the company's communications objectives.</p><p>　　People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the

51、many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work

52、hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers.</p><p><b>　　市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略</b></p><p>　　1 市場(chǎng)細(xì)分和目標(biāo)市場(chǎng)策略</p><p>　　具有需求，具有購(gòu)

53、買(mǎi)能力并愿意花銷(xiāo)的個(gè)體或組織構(gòu)成了市場(chǎng)。然而，在大多數(shù)市場(chǎng)中，購(gòu)買(mǎi)者的需求不一致。因此，對(duì)整個(gè)市場(chǎng)采用單一的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)計(jì)劃可能不會(huì)成功。一個(gè)合理的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)計(jì)劃應(yīng)以區(qū)分市場(chǎng)中存在的差異為起點(diǎn)，這一過(guò)程被稱(chēng)為市場(chǎng)細(xì)分，它還包括將何種細(xì)分市場(chǎng)作為目標(biāo)市場(chǎng)。</p><p>　　市場(chǎng)細(xì)分使公司能更加有效地利用其營(yíng)銷(xiāo)資源。而且，也使得小公司可以通過(guò)集中在一兩個(gè)細(xì)分上場(chǎng)上有效地參與競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。市場(chǎng)細(xì)分的明顯缺點(diǎn)是，其導(dǎo)致了比單一產(chǎn)品、單一大

54、市場(chǎng)策略更高的生產(chǎn)和營(yíng)銷(xiāo)成本。但是，如果市場(chǎng)細(xì)分得當(dāng)?shù)脑?，更加符合消費(fèi)者的需求，實(shí)際上將生產(chǎn)更高的效率。</p><p>　　確定目標(biāo)市場(chǎng)有三種可供選擇的策略，它們是統(tǒng)一市場(chǎng)、單一細(xì)分市場(chǎng)和多重細(xì)分市場(chǎng)。統(tǒng)一市場(chǎng)策略即采取一種營(yíng)銷(xiāo)組合用到一個(gè)整體的、無(wú)差異的市場(chǎng)中去。采取單一細(xì)分市場(chǎng)策略，公司仍然僅有一種營(yíng)銷(xiāo)組合，但它只用在整個(gè)市場(chǎng)的一個(gè)細(xì)分市場(chǎng)中。多重細(xì)分市場(chǎng)策略需要選擇兩個(gè)或更多的細(xì)分市場(chǎng)，并且每個(gè)細(xì)分市場(chǎng)分

55、別采用一種單獨(dú)的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)組合。</p><p><b>　　2 產(chǎn)品定位</b></p><p>　　管理者將注意力集中于一種品牌，并以恰當(dāng)?shù)姆绞綄⑵渑c類(lèi)似的品牌相區(qū)分，但這并不意味著該品牌就一定能夠最后贏利。因此，管理者需要進(jìn)行定位，即塑造與競(jìng)爭(zhēng)品牌和競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的其他品牌相關(guān)的自我品牌形象。</p><p>　　市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)人員可以從各種定位策略中加以

56、選擇。有時(shí)，他們決定對(duì)某一特定產(chǎn)品采用一種以上的策略。以下是幾種主要的定位策略：</p><p>　　2.1與競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者相關(guān)的定位</p><p>　　對(duì)一些產(chǎn)品來(lái)說(shuō)，最佳的定位是直接針對(duì)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手。該策略特別適用于已經(jīng)具有固定的差別優(yōu)勢(shì)或試圖強(qiáng)化這種優(yōu)勢(shì)的廠商。為排擠微處理器的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手，Intel公司開(kāi)展了一項(xiàng)活動(dòng)使用戶確信它的產(chǎn)品優(yōu)于競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的產(chǎn)品。公司甚至為電腦制造商出錢(qián)，讓它們?cè)谧约旱膹V

57、告中帶上“Intel Inside”標(biāo)志。作為市場(chǎng)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者，可口可樂(lè)公司推出新產(chǎn)品并實(shí)施其市場(chǎng)營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略。同時(shí)，它密切注視百事可樂(lè)公司，以確保對(duì)主要競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的任何一次巧妙、有效的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)舉措采取相應(yīng)的對(duì)策。</p><p>　　2.2 與產(chǎn)品類(lèi)別和屬性相關(guān)的定位</p><p>　　有時(shí)候，公司的定位策略有必要將自己的產(chǎn)品與其類(lèi)別和屬性相聯(lián)系（或相區(qū)別）。一些公司盡力將其產(chǎn)品定位在期望的類(lèi)別中，如

58、“美國(guó)制造”。用一句某顧問(wèn)的話來(lái)說(shuō)，“當(dāng)你說(shuō)‘美國(guó)制造’的時(shí)候，有一種強(qiáng)烈的感情因素在吸引著你”。因此，一家名為Boston Preparatory的規(guī)模不大的運(yùn)動(dòng)服制造商正在運(yùn)用這種定位策略，以期勝過(guò)那些并非所有產(chǎn)品都在美國(guó)制造的勢(shì)力強(qiáng)大的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。</p><p>　　2.3 通過(guò)價(jià)格和質(zhì)量定位</p><p>　　某些生產(chǎn)者和零

59、售商因其高質(zhì)量和高價(jià)格而聞名。在零售行業(yè)，Saks Fifth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于該價(jià)格—質(zhì)量策略的。折扣店Target Kmart則是定位于該策略的反面。我們不是說(shuō)折扣商店忽視質(zhì)量，而是說(shuō)它們更加強(qiáng)調(diào)低廉的價(jià)格。Penny's公司努力—并且大多獲得了成功—通過(guò)升級(jí)高級(jí)服裝線和強(qiáng)調(diào)設(shè)計(jì)者的名字將其商店定位于價(jià)格—質(zhì)量策略上。</p><p>　　“品牌”一詞是個(gè)綜合性的

60、概念，它包含其他更狹義的理解。品牌即一個(gè)名稱(chēng)和（或）標(biāo)志，用以識(shí)別一個(gè)銷(xiāo)售者或銷(xiāo)售集團(tuán)的產(chǎn)品，并將之與競(jìng)爭(zhēng)產(chǎn)品相區(qū)別。</p><p>　　品牌名稱(chēng)由能夠發(fā)音的單詞、字母和(或)數(shù)字組成。品牌標(biāo)志是品牌的一部分，它以符號(hào)、圖案或醒目的顏色、字體的形式出現(xiàn)。品牌標(biāo)志通過(guò)視覺(jué)識(shí)別，但當(dāng)人們僅僅讀出品牌名稱(chēng)的時(shí)候，品牌標(biāo)志并不能夠被表達(dá)出來(lái)。Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名稱(chēng)。AT&T由醒目的

61、線條構(gòu)成的地球以及Ralph Lauren's Polo的馬和騎手是品牌標(biāo)志，而Green Giant（罐裝冷凍菜蔬產(chǎn)品）和Arm&Hammer（面包蘇打）既是品牌名稱(chēng)又是品牌標(biāo)志。</p><p>　　商標(biāo)是銷(xiāo)售者已經(jīng)采用并且受到法律保護(hù)的品牌。商標(biāo)不僅包括品牌標(biāo)志，如許多人所認(rèn)為的那樣，也包括品牌名稱(chēng)。1946年的The Lanham Art法案允許廠商向聯(lián)邦政府注冊(cè)商標(biāo)，以保護(hù)它們免受其他廠

62、商的使用或誤用。1989年生效的《商標(biāo)法修訂案》（The Trademark Law Revision Act）旨在健全注冊(cè)系統(tǒng)以維護(hù)美國(guó)廠商的利益。</p><p>　　對(duì)于銷(xiāo)售者來(lái)說(shuō)，品牌可以被推廣。當(dāng)他們陳列于商店或出現(xiàn)在廣告中時(shí)很容易被認(rèn)出。品牌化減少了價(jià)格比較。因?yàn)樵诒容^不同產(chǎn)品時(shí)，品牌是有必要考慮的另一因素，所以品牌化減少了僅僅依靠?jī)r(jià)格便作出購(gòu)買(mǎi)決定的可能。品牌的知名度還會(huì)影響到購(gòu)買(mǎi)服務(wù)和消費(fèi)品的消費(fèi)

63、者的忠誠(chéng)度。最后，品牌化可以區(qū)別商品（例如Sunkist牌鮮橙、 Morton牌食鹽以及 Domino牌食糖）。</p><p><b>　　3 定價(jià)</b></p><p>　　定價(jià)是一個(gè)動(dòng)態(tài)的過(guò)程，公司會(huì)為其所有產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)定價(jià)結(jié)構(gòu)。隨著時(shí)間的推移，公司會(huì)改變價(jià)格結(jié)構(gòu)，并將之調(diào)整到適應(yīng)不同的消費(fèi)者和形勢(shì)的狀態(tài)。</p><p>　　公司應(yīng)采

64、用多樣的價(jià)格調(diào)整策略來(lái)適應(yīng)消費(fèi)群體和具體情況的差別。一個(gè)是折扣和折讓定價(jià)，及公司依批量、功能或季節(jié)來(lái)決定折扣或不同形式的折讓。第二個(gè)策略是差別定價(jià)，即公司為不同的顧客、產(chǎn)品或因地點(diǎn)不同而制定兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上的差別價(jià)格。有時(shí)公司在作價(jià)格決策時(shí)不僅考慮經(jīng)濟(jì)因素，而且使用心理定價(jià)來(lái)傳達(dá)有關(guān)產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量或價(jià)值信息。在促銷(xiāo)定價(jià)時(shí)，公司會(huì)在短期內(nèi)以低于商品定價(jià)銷(xiāo)售產(chǎn)品，通過(guò)大甩賣(mài)來(lái)吸引更多的顧客，有時(shí)甚至低于成本銷(xiāo)售。運(yùn)用價(jià)值定價(jià)，公司以公平價(jià)格提供相

65、應(yīng)的質(zhì)量和優(yōu)質(zhì)服務(wù)。另一種方法是地區(qū)性定價(jià)，公司決定怎樣為遠(yuǎn)距離的客戶定價(jià)。通常有以下幾種方法可供選擇：原產(chǎn)地定價(jià)、統(tǒng)一交貨定價(jià)、區(qū)域定價(jià)、基點(diǎn)定價(jià)和免收運(yùn)費(fèi)定價(jià)。最后，國(guó)際市場(chǎng)定價(jià)意味著公司調(diào)整其價(jià)格來(lái)滿足不同世界市場(chǎng)的需要。</p><p><b>　　4 產(chǎn)品的分銷(xiāo)</b></p><p>　　大部分生產(chǎn)商利用中間商將其產(chǎn)品推向市場(chǎng)。他們努力建立“分銷(xiāo)渠道”——

66、 一套指向消費(fèi)者或企業(yè)用戶、提供商品或服務(wù)的彼此獨(dú)立建立的組織的總稱(chēng)。</p><p>　　為什么生產(chǎn)者將部分銷(xiāo)售工作交給中介呢？畢竟，這樣做意味著放棄對(duì)產(chǎn)品如何銷(xiāo)售和向誰(shuí)出售的某種控制。利用營(yíng)銷(xiāo)中介可以提高商品走向目標(biāo)市場(chǎng)的效率。中介組織以其社會(huì)關(guān)系、經(jīng)驗(yàn)、專(zhuān)長(zhǎng)以及經(jīng)營(yíng)規(guī)模往往為生產(chǎn)商創(chuàng)造比其通過(guò)自身的努力所能獲得的更大的價(jià)值。</p><p>　　商品通過(guò)分銷(xiāo)渠道從生產(chǎn)者手中到達(dá)消費(fèi)者

67、手中。時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)等因素不一致，會(huì)使商品和服務(wù)與消費(fèi)者相分離，而分銷(xiāo)渠道克服了這個(gè)矛盾。分銷(xiāo)渠道的作用很多，有些起著促成交易的作用，如：</p><p><b>　　1.市場(chǎng)調(diào)研</b></p><p><b>　　2.促銷(xiāo)</b></p><p>　　3.接觸客戶的功能：尋找潛在購(gòu)買(mǎi)者并與之溝通。</p>&

68、lt;p>　　4.適銷(xiāo)功能：是供給適應(yīng)購(gòu)買(mǎi)者的需求，包括加工和包裝。</p><p>　　5協(xié)調(diào)功能：就價(jià)格與其他交易條件達(dá)成協(xié)議以促成所有權(quán)的轉(zhuǎn)移。還有一些是功能是輔助交易的完成，如：</p><p><b>　　1.貨物儲(chǔ)運(yùn)功能</b></p><p><b>　　2.資金融通功能</b></p>

69、<p>　　3.承擔(dān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)功能：分銷(xiāo)商可以替制造商承擔(dān)分銷(xiāo)過(guò)程中的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。問(wèn)題不在于是否需要這些功能，而在于有誰(shuí)來(lái)執(zhí)行這些功能。所有這些功能在三個(gè)方面是相同的，即它們都占用有限的資源，通過(guò)分工能更好地執(zhí)行這些功能，以及它們可以由不同的分銷(xiāo)商執(zhí)行。如果由制造商執(zhí)行這些功能，會(huì)導(dǎo)致高成本，繼而導(dǎo)致高價(jià)格。然而，如果一些功能轉(zhuǎn)由中間商執(zhí)行，則制造商的成本可能會(huì)下降。當(dāng)然中間商會(huì)在價(jià)格中加入它們的工作成本。在分配分銷(xiāo)工作時(shí)，應(yīng)當(dāng)將其分配給

70、在滿足客戶的多種需求方面效率最高的分銷(xiāo)商。</p><p>　　分銷(xiāo)渠道可以用其涉及到的中間環(huán)節(jié)的多少來(lái)描述。將產(chǎn)品及其所有權(quán)向最終消費(fèi)者專(zhuān)一的過(guò)程中的各個(gè)層次的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)中介組織就是渠道層面。由于生產(chǎn)者與消費(fèi)者都執(zhí)行某種職能，故它們也是分銷(xiāo)渠道的組成部分。</p><p>　　企業(yè)在選擇中間商時(shí)，要清楚具有什么樣的特征的中間商是更優(yōu)秀的。企業(yè)通常要考察中間商從業(yè)歷史的長(zhǎng)短、經(jīng)營(yíng)范圍、企業(yè)增長(zhǎng)和

71、利潤(rùn)的記錄、是否具有協(xié)作精神及其聲譽(yù)情況。如果該中間商是銷(xiāo)售代理，企業(yè)就要考察其經(jīng)營(yíng)的其他產(chǎn)品的數(shù)量和特點(diǎn)、銷(xiāo)售規(guī)模和能力。如果該中間商是一個(gè)想獲得獨(dú)家或非獨(dú)家經(jīng)銷(xiāo)權(quán)的零售店，企業(yè)就要考察其顧客的情況、地理位置及其未來(lái)的增長(zhǎng)潛力。</p><p>　　理解分銷(xiāo)渠道的性質(zhì)是很重要的。因?yàn)檫x擇正確的分銷(xiāo)渠道是企業(yè)決策最重要的內(nèi)容之一。</p><p>　　之所以利用營(yíng)銷(xiāo)中介組織，是因?yàn)樗麄冊(cè)谑?/p>

72、產(chǎn)品進(jìn)入目標(biāo)市場(chǎng)的過(guò)程中創(chuàng)造了更高的效率。分銷(xiāo)渠道的最關(guān)鍵的作用是，它能促成交易或輔助完成交易，從而將產(chǎn)品從生產(chǎn)者手中到達(dá)消費(fèi)者手中。分銷(xiāo)渠道可以用渠道中介環(huán)節(jié)的數(shù)量來(lái)描述。在直接營(yíng)銷(xiāo)渠道中，沒(méi)有一個(gè)中介環(huán)節(jié)，而在間接營(yíng)銷(xiāo)渠道中，則有一個(gè)或多個(gè)中介環(huán)節(jié)。</p><p><b>　　5 產(chǎn)品促銷(xiāo)</b></p><p>　　促銷(xiāo)時(shí)公司營(yíng)銷(xiāo)組合四個(gè)主要組成部分之一。主要